Posts com a Tag ‘BRILEY Ron (Res)’
Republic of Debtors: Bankruptcy in the Age of American Independence – MANN (CSS)
MANN, Bruce H. Republic of Debtors: Bankruptcy in the Age of American Independence. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002. 344p. Resenha de: BRILEY, Ron. Canadian Social Studies, v.38, n.3, p., 2004.
In Republic of Debtors, Bruce H. Mann, professor of law and history at the University of Pennsylvania, offers an informative account of the role played by economic insolvency in the creation of the American republic. Nonetheless, most students at the secondary level will struggle with Mann’s prose grounded in economic analysis. Teachers of American history, however, would do well to consult this volume and incorporate Mann’s research into the historical narrative which all too often tends to uncritically celebrate the unfolding of American economic growth and prosperity.
In the midst of a major recession in which the economic gap between rich and poor continues to grow in the United States, it is worth recalling that these issues of economic and social inequality were present at the inception of the American republic. Americans who struggle under the burden of consumer credit card debt, while bemoaning the legal advantages awarded to corporate debt, will discover from reading Mann’s volume that such conditions are hardly new to American capitalism. Indeed, Mann’s attention to issues of class is crucial, for this is a topic which draws scant coverage in textbooks.
Mann argues that debt in the English colonies of North America was considered a moral issue and the failure to honor a debt constituted a character flaw. This situation, however, began to change in the mid-seventeenth century with the expansion of commercial capital activity. Yet, the devastation of the Seven Years War and the tightening of British mercantile regulations over the colonies resulted in an economic downturn, rendering many colonial businessmen and speculators unable to honor their financial obligations. Debtors called for relief, and insolvency was increasingly perceived as an economic failure, often due to market forces over which the individual exercised little control, rather than a moral lapse.
Essential to Mann’s argument is that this evolving attitudinal shift regarding insolvency extended to commercial rather than consumer debt. Thus, Mann asserts that some colonial legislatures began to experiment with limited bankruptcy laws. Also, many began to question whether imprisonment for debt was a proper remedy for merchants who had fallen upon hard times. Reformers complained that in the two major debtors’ prisons, the New Gaol in New York City and Philadelphia’s Prime Street Jail, respectable middle class businessmen and their families were often incarcerated with common criminals.
Appeals for commercial debt relief increased following the American Revolution and the post war depression which disrupted traditional colonial trading relationships. The uncertain financial times led to the imprisonment of such prominent speculators as William Morris, William Duer, and John Pintard. The ensuing social unrest culminated in Shays’s Rebellion and the belief that a stronger central government was necessary to protect property and maintain order. Accordingly, the Constitutional Convention of 1789 provided the national government with the power to create bankruptcy legislation.
During the 1790s popular perceptions regarding debt continued to evolve, and Mann devotes considerable space to newspapers, pamphlets, and reform journals in which debt was perceived as a threat to the independence of the new republic. Thus, Virginia planters complained that their British creditors were attempting to reduce them to the status of dependent slavery. The irony of such rhetoric, however, was apparently not recognized by the slave-owning planters. Some commercial debtors attempted to escape the reach of creditors by moving to the west, where they were able to reestablish themselves as entrepreneurs. Others were not as fortunate, ending up in the New Gaol where Morris, and others of his social background, attempted to maintain their status by orchestrating an elaborate self-governing procedure for the so-called Middle Hall of the New Gaol.
The debate over commercial debt in the new republic culminated in the Bankruptcy Act of 1800. Commercial debtors rejoiced in the passage of a law which, according to Mann, extended only to merchants, bankers, brokers, factors, underwriters, and marine insurers, who owed a minimum of $1,000 and who had committed one or more acts of bankruptcy (p. 222). Despite the class nature of this legislation and the fact that the bankruptcy process could not be implemented without the approval of creditors, the Bankruptcy Act of 1800 was unpopular with creditors. Accordingly, in 1803 the law was repealed, and a permanent piece of bankruptcy legislation was not enacted until 1898. While creditors continued to express some discomfort with debt relief for all social classes, Mann’s main point is that the Bankruptcy Act of 1800 represented a national statement of the ‘principle’ that release from debts was a boon reserved for capitalistic entrepreneurs, while simpler debtors should, by implication, remember the sanctity of their obligations (p. 256).
Mann concludes that the American legal and economic system continues to grapple with these issues of dependence and independence. Students and teachers of American history should pay greater attention to the class origins of this debate which is well outlined in Mann’s volume. The promise of equal economic opportunity in the United States remains an elusive goal.
Ron Briley – Sandia Preparatory School. Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.
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Is That Right? Critical Thinking and the Social World of the Young Learner – WRIGHT (CSS)
WRIGHT, Ian. Is That Right? Critical Thinking and the Social World of the Young Learner. Toronto: Pippin Publishing, 2002. 144p. Resenha de: BRILEY, Ron. Canadian Social Studies, v.39, n.1, p., 2004.
Is That Right? is a useful volume for any teacher who would like to introduce critical thinking into the elementary and middle school curriculum. Although Ian Wright is currently a professor of social studies education at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, his years as a classroom teacher are most evident in this book. The practical lesson plans included in the volume provide concrete examples for teachers. The book is addressed to the everyday concerns of teachers and does not become overly bogged down with theoretical concerns. For example, Wright defines critical thinking as making judgments about what to believe and what to do in situations that are problematic that is situations where we do not know initially what to believe or do (p. 56).
Wright acknowledges that he has not always practiced critical thinking in the classroom, but he has become an enthusiastic convert. Nevertheless, the environment in both the United States and Canada is increasingly hostile to critical thinking. High stakes standardized testing, which determine grade placement and faculty retention, have placed considerable pressure upon teachers to focus upon more rote memory of factual material. In the United States this educational approach is embodied in the No Child Left Behind Act and standards movement.
It is a fallacy, however, to assume that critical thinking is not about standards and excellence. As Wright points out, not all opinions are equally valid. Critical thinking is all about developing measurements and assessment tools, for both students and teachers, to ascertain which arguments or opinions are most valid and best supported. The ultimate goal for an educated community is not memorizing or regurgitating information, but learning to become intelligent citizens who are capable of making informed choices.
Critical thinking provides the foundation for such a citizenry by developing practical tools for evaluating evidence. Teachers seeking more concrete means of evaluation in the classroom might consult the critical thinking rubrics developed by Wright. But the bottom line for those who obsess upon objectivity should be recognition that in our daily lives we must deal with ambiguity, and the classroom under the guidance of a caring teacher is an appropriate laboratory to begin this process. Our best students and citizens are those who develop a healthy respect for the roles played by ambiguity and paradox in historical causation and human motivation.
While Wright asserts that critical thinking skills may be employed in most academic subjects, his experience and examples focus primarily upon the field of social studies. And here we encounter another level of controversy. Some in the discipline of history assert that the social studies are too present minded and expect too little from children. Indeed, many of the sample lessons provided by Wright deal with such issues as what makes a good friend or what to do about garbage. Groups in the United Sates such as the National Council for History Education maintain that young learners are capable of historical understanding and that the social studies approach is ahistorical and lacking substance or context. But in many ways this debate between history and the social studies is a tempest in a teapot; for the critical thinking approach fits well into the history classroom.
In evaluating a primary document or actions taken in the past, the skills of analyzing which argument is best supported still applies. And this works just as well for a classroom mock trial as a more traditional research paper. Was John Brown a terrorist who murdered innocent people or was he a freedom fighter against the tyranny of slavery? Or is reality too complex for such bipolar thinking? The key point is that critical thinking provides an approach to historical inquiry which accounts for the complexity of the past and demonstrates how the past may shed light upon the present.
Those who may really challenge the critical thinking approach are individuals and groups who assert that history should simply be about patriotism and indoctrination rather than the questioning of ideas and even values. Some argue that in the age of terrorism our children might learn to unquestionably embrace Western Civilization against threats from alien ideologies. Yet, as fewer and fewer media conglomerates control mainstream access to information, real security flows from an electorate trained to critically evaluate ideas and resist political or corporate manipulation.
Thus, as usual, teachers are on the front lines of dealing with a complex world. Critical thinking should make this heavy responsibility a little less onerous; for teachers who embrace critical thinking techniques are not authority figures who must always provide the right answer. Instead, the teacher is an intelligent guide working alongside the students to develop and foster the tools necessary to make critical distinctions.
Wright’s book is both inspirational and practical. His ideas may be applied to the university as well as the elementary school classroom. The inclusion of sample lesson plans and a bibliography, complete with appropriate web sites, make Is That Right? a volume which should find a place on most teachers’ bookshelves. More than just a teaching tool, critical thinking is essential to the preservation of a democratic ethos.
Ron Briley – Sandia Preparatory School. Albuquerque, New Mexico.
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Stardust and Shadows: Canadians in Early Hollywood- FOSTER (CSS)
FOSTER, Charles. Stardust and Shadows: Canadians in Early Hollywood. Toronto: Dundurn Press, 2000. 408p. Resenha de: BRILEY, Ron. Canadian Social Studies, v.37, n.2, 2003.
In Stardust and Shadows, Charles Foster argues that Canadians made an important contribution to the development of early Hollywood. To support this thesis, he includes eighteen portraits of Canadians who were active in the formative years of the film industry in both New York and Hollywood. In addition to brief biographies of well known film figures such as Mary Pickford, Louis B. Mayer, Mack Sennett, and Norma Shearer, Foster examines lesser known individuals such as Florence La Badie, Al and Charles Christie, and Joe and Sam De Grasse. The sketches are well written and based upon interviews conducted by Foster, an author who is obviously enamoured with his subject. A careful reader will find some real gems in this volume, such as the fact that when the Pickfair estate (home of Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks) was renovated, its new owners were shocked to find what they assumed was some type of torture chamber. Instead, they had discovered a dentist chair and equipment which was installed by Fairbanks so that Canadian actor Sam De Grasse, whose original training was in the field of dentistry, could attend to Fairbanks in the comfort of his own home.
Foster primarily uses anecdotal evidence to bolster his case for the Canadian influence within Hollywood. However, Foster is not a professional historian, and he offers little analysis as to why Canadians played such a pivotal role in the film capital’s formative years. In fact, Foster offers little explanation as to why he has selected these eighteen Canadians for inclusion in his volume. The assumption is that these are the individuals about whom Foster was able to gain the greatest amount of information during his interviews.
Foster began this project during the Second World War when he was a pilot for the British Royal Air Force and spent two weeks of leave in Hollywood. He was invited to stay at the home of fellow Canadian and director Sidney Olcott, who was instrumental in opening the doors of the film industry to Foster. The Canadian connection in Hollywood became a passion for Foster, who returned to the film industry as often as possible over the next fifty years. His work in the field of public relations in both the United States and England, however, made it difficult for Foster to turn his interviews into a manuscript. Upon retirement in the early 1990s, Foster vowed to complete his labor of love which is contained within the pages of Stardust and Shadows. The author concludes, The result is this tribute to eighteen talented Canadians. It will, I hope, make a lot of people wonder whatever would show business have done without them (p. 10).
Foster is obviously enamored with the glamour of early Hollywood, but what will modern readers make of this volume? Individuals such as Mary Pickford and Norma Shearer are hardly any longer household names. In eulogy to the way Hollywood used to be, it is worth considering that film today is in many ways a more democratic and accessible enterprise with new technologies and the inclusion of racial and ethnic groups once excluded from the mainstream. Also, it is not necessary simply to consider the Canadian contribution to Hollywood, for Canada has a rich film industry and culture which is worthy of celebration.
Accordingly, while Foster’s book is often quite entertaining, it is also rather antiquated. It is difficult to perceive of this volume being of great interest in the schools, however, students might learn something about the value of doing oral history and pursuing one’s dreams. Some of the portraits might be of use in the classroom to demonstrate that Hollywood was not simply an American creation. Many nationalities, including Canadians, played a significant role in Hollywood’s formative years. While Stardust and Shadows may be of greater interest to older readers, it is worth noting that there is a rich Canadian cinematic history on which contemporary filmmakers continue to build.
Ron Briley – Sandia Preparatory School. Albuquerque, New Mexico.
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Understanding the Teacher Union Contract: A Citizen’s Handbook – LIEBERMAN (CSS)
LIEBERMAN, Myron. Understanding the Teacher Union Contract: A Citizen’s Handbook. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers and Social Philosophy and Policy Center, 2000. 220p. Resenha de: BRILEY, Ron. Canadian Social Studies, v.36, n.1, 2002.
In Understanding the Teacher Union Contract, Myron Lieberman, chair of the Education Policy Institute and senior research scholar of the Social Philosophy Center, continues the argument made in previous studies such as The Teachers Unions (1997) and Teachers Evaluating Teachers (1998). While often assuming the voice of objectivity, Lieberman is hardly a disinterested observer, for the Social Philosophy and Policy Centre supports privatization, vouchers, competition and the market system as the solutions for the problems of America’s public schools.
Lieberman argues that collective bargaining is by definition an adversarial process between unions and management. According to Lieberman, in public education management is the school board, the party that is theoretically and legally responsible to the electorate for representing the public interest (p. xiii). Thus, advocacy between labour and management in the public sector is very different from espousing such a position in the private sector. Lieberman concludes that in taking a pro-management position he is really advocating a stance in favour of the public interest for Lieberman asserts that teacher unionization is the principle factor blocking educational reforms. Accordingly, this handbook is intended for use by school board members, school administrators, state legislators, parents and taxpayers. Much of the volume is technical, addressing such issues as grievance procedures, release time for bargaining, union access to district buildings, payroll deduction for union dues, union recognition, and no-strike clauses.
Perceiving the public interest as being represented by school management, Lieberman holds little promise for such teacher union initiatives as peer review and the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. He insists these proposed reforms are dominated by the National Education Association and American Federation of Teachers, who want standards that most teachers can meet rather than extolling excellence. Like diplomats who insist that they are opposed to another nation’s government but not the people, Lieberman denounces union representation for teachers but is sympathetic to individual educators suffering under the yoke of union domination. In fact, Lieberman seems to have little use for teachers. He seems to assume that teachers are seeking the lowest common denominator and are motivated solely by self-interest. Missing from Lieberman’s analysis is any consideration of the long arduous hours put in by teachers after the classroom day as well as their commitment to improving the quality of life for young people.
Any indication that Lieberman is opposed simply to teacher unions and unionization in the public sector is dispelled by the handbook’s conclusion. Lieberman observes that unionization in the private sector has been declining steadily in the United States since 1953. Lieberman asserts that The fact that unionization tends to depress profits and weaken the value of stock in unionized companies is another factor in the decline of private sector unions; more and more employees recognize that their individual welfare is partly dependent on company welfare, and that company welfare is threatened by unionization (p. 192). However, Lieberman fails to acknowledge that the decline of unions has contributed to the growing gap between rich and poor in the United States.
Lieberman laments that unions continue to flourish in public education because individual teachers lack the resources to compete against powerful union monopolies in decertification campaigns. Yet he also believes that the power of the teacher unions is on the wane. Clearly Lieberman trusts that his handbook will contribute to this outcome. Nevertheless, the ideological market approach championed by Lieberman and his associates fails to acknowledge the it is smaller classrooms, decentralization, and increased teacher compensation and empowerment which would really change the face of American education.
Ron Briley – Sandia Preparatory School. Albuquerque, New Mexico.
[IF]Teachers Evaluating Teachers: Peer Review and the New Unionism – LIEBERMANN (CSS)
LIEBERMAN, Myron. Teachers Evaluating Teachers: Peer Review and the New Unionism. New Brunswick. N.J.: Transaction Publishers and Social Philosophy and Policy Centre, 1998. 137p. Resenha de: BRILEY, Ron. Canadian Social Studies, v.35, n.2, 2001.
In Teachers Evaluating Teachers, Myron Lieberman, a senior research scholar of the Social Philosophy and Policy Center, takes issue with peer review as a means through which to address the crisis in American public education. Lieberman, who has served as a chief negotiator for school districts during collective bargaining, asserts that teacher unions, such as the National Education Association (NEA) and American Federation of Teachers (AFT), have blocked educational reform by protecting the employment status of incompetent teachers.
However, Lieberman acknowledges that the teacher unions, conscious of growing public criticism, have attempted to alter their image by embracing the new unionism, which the author finds to be an undefined and ambiguous concept. The concept of peer review is representative of the new unionism which the teacher unions, based primarily upon what the NEA and AFT perceive as successful experiments in the public schools of Columbus and Toledo, Ohio, have championed as a method by which teachers needing assistance may receive evaluation and mentoring from peer consulting teachers.
Lieberman attacks the reform of peer review as a sham. The educational consultant asserts that results on student standardized tests (the panacea of contemporary American education) have not increased in schools using peer review. In addition, the process is costly and bureaucratic, while good teachers are taken out of the classroom to serve as consulting teachers. Thus, Lieberman concludes that peer review may actually hinder rather than support the cause of educational reform in the public schools. Instead, he advocates that teachers eschew collective bargaining and the traditional union model in favor of professional organizations which would allow for more individual choice among teachers; protection of occupational minorities, such as skilled mathematics teachers; and advocate what Lieberman terms as occupational citizenship.
Indeed, there is much one may find to criticize in teacher unions; however, Lieberman is hardly an unbiased observer, for he represents the Social Philosophy and Policy Center, which supports privatization, vouchers, competition, and the market system as the solution for America’s public schools. Of course, this is the same market system which rewards professional wrestler/entertainers so lavishly and teachers so poorly. Lieberman also demonstrates little respect for teachers; a public attitude which, along with low pay, has contributed to the problems of American education. For example, he pokes fun at the idea that teachers would be the ones most capable of establishing their own professional development plans. He assumes that they would seek salary credit for courses that are the easiest, the most convenient, or the least expensive (102). Nor does Lieberman express much appreciation for the role played by the labor movement in American history. Lieberman writes: The union movement in the U. S. emerged as a response to what was perceived to be the excessive power of the employers over individual employees (8). What does he mean by perceived? Was Lieberman simply daydreaming when his history teacher covered the excesses of American capitalism in the late nineteenth century?
Lieberman’s book is a contribution to the growing political debate regarding the direction of public education in America; a policy matter which emerged as a major issue in the 2000 Presidential campaign. However, Lieberman is hardly a disinterested participant in this dialogue, and readers of this volume should keep those biases in mind. As for this reviewer, who is a teacher in an independent school and not a union member, there remains considerable pride in serving alongside public and private school colleagues, who are among the most dedicated professionals in the world.
Ron Briley – Sandia Preparatory School. Albuquerque, New Mexico.
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